Theyyam

The Theyyam or Theyyattam is a popular ritual dance of North Kerala, particularly now found in the traditional Kolathunadu, of the present Kannur and Kasargode districts. As a living cult with centuries old traditions, ritual and custom, it embraces almost all castes and classes of Hindu religion in this region. The term Theyyam is a corrupt form of daivam or God.  It is a rare combination of dance and music and reflects important features of a tribal culture.The indigenous Theyyam cult under the influence of the great classical Indian tradition incorporated new ideas and legends.  However its form and content did not change very much. The earliest Brahminic settlements like Payyanur and Perimchellur (Thaliparamba) in Kolathunadu where the Brahminic religion was propagated through the institutions of temples largely influenced the popular folk religion based on Theyyam and other tribal cults. According to the legendary Keralolpathi, Parasurama sanctioned the festivals like Kaliyattam, Puravela and Deivattam or Theyyattam to the people of Kerala.  He assigned the responsibility of Theyyam dance to the indigenous communities like Panan, Velan and Vannan. These traditions explain how the indigenous cults like Theyyam were incorporated and metamorphosed under the religious supremacy of the Brahmanism. In the long historical process a social system evolved in Kerala in which the little culture like Theyyam belonged to the depressed castes and classes where as the temple oriented culture belonged to the dominant castes and classes. There were no violent confrontations between these two cultures as there was no total destruction of the indigenous culture.  “There can be no doubt”, say Bridget and Raymond Alchin, ‘that a very large part of this modern folk religion is extremely ancient and contains traits which originated ruing the earliest periods of Neolithic , Chalcolithic settlement and expression (The Birth of Indian Civilization 1968 p.3039)Velan, on of the communities of Theyyam dancers, is referred to in the Tamil Sangam literature.  According to Sangam tradition he was employed by the mothers of the love-lorn girls to exercise the malignant spirits from their daughters. He propitiated God Murukan to drive away the evils spirits by sacrificing a goat before a Kalam or Square made for this occasion. At the end of the ceremony he conducted a dance known as Velan Veriyatal with a spear in his hand and prophesied the future happiness of the girl. The works like Tirumurukattuppatai, give descriptions of Velan’s Kalam, offering of chekki and oleander flowers with sacrificial blood, locations of performance like Manram, Podiyil, estuary (thuruthu), groves, forest, riverbanks and Kadamba tree.  The main characteristics of such performances are traced in the contemporary Theyyam cult. Now all such rituals as described in some of the Sangam works and their commentaries are being observed by Velan and other dancing communities in the cult of Theyyam. Now the Velan community is divided into two groups known as Anjutton and Munnutton in Kolathunadu. According to tradition this division is based on the character of their offerings to the deity. The Munnutton section committed only three offenses (such offerings are offences to Brahmins) namely killing of cock, goat and buffalo, and the Anjutton (five offences) namely killing of cock, goat, buffalo, elephant and human being. Some of the Theyyam ritual songs describe that earlier the priest or the dancer had even sacrifices human beings in favour of the deity. Ezhimala described in the Sangam literature and ruled by Udayan Venman Nannan is situated in Kolathunadu, near Payyanur. Therefore the Tamil Sangam culture with variations still continues in this region.  The dance of Velan had taken new forms and developed into the present day cult of Theyyam over a period of 1500 years.  This uninterrupted continuity of the Sangam tradition makes Theyyam a prominent religious system of north Kerala. As a religious and social institution it has significant place in the cultural history of region

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What is India and Who is an Indian ?

Common Heritage shared by All Indians of all Faiths
India is a great flow of cultures, faiths and colors.
This free flow of thought, life style from times immemorial has been taking its own course and the end result has been shaping the humanity and its evolution. India is the biggest and most ancient experiment where almost all racial and ethnic groups of the world have met and mixed.

We do have pure Mongolian races in North East, Australoids and Munda aborigines in Center and East, Mediterranean and Arabian in the North and West, Central Asian Turk-Mongols in North, Aryans in North.
These last form same stock with Aryans of Iran [Ayran], Aryavan [Azairbaijan] and other areas of Amu Dariya.
We also have Burmese, Cambodian, Viet, Thai, Malay and Javanese racial groups in India.
We also have Greek, Armenian, Turk, Slavic Russian, Georgian and even Mediterraneans, Semitic, Phoenicians, Berbers and Misri elements in India.

In past thousands of years, almost all racial and ethnic groups have passed through India - for it was the prime market of the world. Almost center of commerce and trade.
All trade routes including the fabled silk route ended in India.

India was the LAST stop in the global travelers itinerary.
India received almost all races like USA has done in past a few hundred years.
The US experiment is based upon imposing essentially a European society in the Americas whereas India has had flow of visitors from all corners of the world uninterrupted.

India is truly a universal nation.
It is a country of many nations and many ethnic groups.

It is a reality and it is working.
It may be anarchic on surface, it may be a bit dustier on the first impression, it may be overstocked with people apparently yet if we remove these first thin layers on Indian body, covered like a dusty, rustic piece of cloth, we find a coherent, consistent force of life, vibrant, organized, incredibly beautiful, extra ordinary spiritual, most colorful, covering all hues, shades, tones and styles, projecting deep within, a solid, stable, peaceful, soul of India......which collectively make India - a truly amazing and great place.

India's greatness can NEVER be blemished by zillion racial divisions, artificial man made caste systems, man made flimsy belief systems, blind faiths and all sorts of manipulations and fact twisting.

India has survived and will survive.
Life will go on in India... We all will die, burn, bury or cremate and some of us may or may not come back to Human life, but India will go on, always shaping itself, always making its own styles, its own spicy and zesty living, always improvising.

You can name natives of this amazingly changing and evolving society - Hindu Muslim Sikh Catholic Protestant Jew Buddhist Jain X Y Z or any combinations of words available in human memory system...........they all have something in common.

They all are born in the same land, share same sources of life, water, air, food and other ethereal stuff.

All these divisions are man made.
God is One unifying force.
It does not see any difference between green or white or brown or black. Its the overall picture which matters.

Its the big picture we are talking.
See India from a different angle and you will understand that life in India has a different meaning than any other country of the world.

Go beyond the known vocabulary of our blind faith and our self created walls of ignorance and divisions - apparently to protect ourselves from an unknown fear.. The truth is we all are afraid of being this or that when in reality this is nothing but a little file in our mind. Being a Hindu a Muslim a Sikh or a Christian is a state of mind.. it is a bit of an idea - which boils down to a single thought and all thoughts are nothing but archives or files stored in our mind which are like files of old paid or unpaid bills or like old forgotten pictures which we open time to time to laugh and cry.

Well coming back to India.
This is a country which keep reinventing itself in different forms.
You have to know deeper. You have to study the true history of people, life, things, materials, earth and cosmos and of course the meta physical stuff which is beyond anything you can touch or smell.

That beyond stuff is a world of spirituality where the physical bodies do not exist.
ONLY a tiny bit of light or flame of undefined color, which is very palpable, very living, very vibrating yet very unfelt and that is our soul.

Our collective soul makes India a great spiritual torch which has been showing light to the world - yes this little concrete world of ours including our silicon chips and stone oil's plastics - where we stand and sit for about 25,000 days [ei equal to 68 years and about 6 months].

We make so much noise, hear so much noise that the truth is never heard in this huge cacophony and most of these 25.000 days or less are lost in fighting with ourselves, with our neighbors, with our own friends, family and beloved ones.

What does a human being achieve in these days?

Ask yourself.

India does not need any of us.
We need India - to keep our grain size ego inflated as football - high, to keep ourselves busy fighting with each other.

I have a message for you.
India will continue.
We will be soon discontinued.
Our archives will be buried and cremated with our mind somewhere in the dust and that few pound of dust will one day blow and make a clean home dusty and someone will sweep or vacuum cursing the dusty winds of north............

Jeggu Bhai.................A great Human Being.....

Jeggu Bhai ,

 

Jeggu Bhai is one of my best friend. Really he is a funny guy. I know this guy last 5 years .He looks like a 40 year old man behave like a 4 year old child. Aug 2003 I met this guy in our lost heaven Karpagam Arts and science college boys hostel room no 96 with his friend (really?)Jayadev. As per my knowledge he was around 126 Kg those days.

            Because of his huge size (those days I was trying to increase my size….)   and good and friendly behavior we become good friends.  By birth he is Christain, but he will never go for mass, but by action he has been a Arnold Showsnagar. (Our Bloody Bioinformaticions  Gang never forget his remarkable quote  “Sir Ever Enikku Kadavul Mathiri “  towards our hostel warden Pukalendhi.)

           

            How he become Jeggu bai ?  we usually cal him Mr. Jeggu. And he himself changed Jeffin to Jeggu Bhai. I can remember hundreds of actions of Jeggu Bahi.

Eg No.1( for your information Jeggu Bhai have No1, No 2, No 3 , No 4, No5 and going on…. Ha .. ha.. ha.. ) Cause. This happened because of his friend Jayadev, Jeggu bhai proposed one of our class mate, she already has a boy friend, she refused his proposal.

After that he behaves like a 4 th standard kid. ( I am no going to explain his all action here …..) No. 2 become tragedy for that girl , No . 3 become tragedy for both , No. Pennite koode Kuttyy freee…( please don’t kill me )

            He is was the only person ready to fight with local college Gunda Nelson ( I forgot that guys correct name). Once he become violent at, least 10-15 people need to control his actions.  Jeggu Bhai has a lot of fans in our juniors and ladies hostel ( is int it )

He had spoken about our Hemalatha Madams teaching in Tanglish with our great HOD Kozhi Anburaj.

            During his UG days he was an active KSU worker, he and his father was a hero in Nattakam College, Kottayam .He tried to tackle some girls during those days but not succeed.

            He showed deep interest in Bioinformatics. But its ends;”Sky are the limit” and “enormous potential” as “lot of opportunities”.

In personal life he is a stingy person, he is not willing to buy new  underwear’s, he drinks occasionally and become a senti …. Guy….Once after a small party he created some problem in a nearby Dhaba , reason no2 with Mithun.

This page continues…………………

 

 

Election procedure in the US

Election Day is the first Tuesday in November that follows a Monday in November. (for example, it would be Nov. 2 if that were a Tuesday, but if Nov. 1 were a Tuesday, Election Day would be on Nov. 8) Elections on odd-numbered years typically don't get much media attention, as they're mostly for local offices and ballot initiatives. Elections for President occur every four years, while Congressional elections are every two years. These occur on the even-numbered years. 

People go to vote at their local precinct, and voting is open to anyone over age 18, except those who are currently imprisoned for a felony conviction or have been dishonorably discharged from the military. Congressional and local elections are based on a simple majority vote, but Presidential elections are a bit more complicated because of the Electoral College. This consists of "electors" for each state. Every state has as many electors as they have total members of Congress (House and Senate). The candidate who gets the majority of votes in a state is typically awarded all of the electors, but in some states, they are divided proportionately based on how many votes each candidate received. There are a total of 538 electors, so at least 270 are needed to win the Presidential election. 

It should also be noted that this system allows for someone to lose the popular vote, but win in the Electoral College, as was the case in 2000, when George W. Bush won the election with more electoral votes, even though his opponent Al Gore had more actual votes. 

How to become good student

Motivation

To become a good student, you need to get motivated! Motivation can come from seeing the situation of many poor children around the world who are not lucky enough to get a proper education. Keep that in mind when you don't want to attend class or study at home. Another reason to get motivated to study is that you will enjoy a better quality of life as an educated person. You can go to educational websites, like this, and surf them with interest. You must not force yourself to study, this will make learning a chore and you'll not feel like even opening your books. You will have many academically good students in your courses. Try becoming friends with them (or encourage your current friends to be better students), and you'll be immersed in an academic environment which will help you feel motivated!

Above all, you need confidence! For that, we need to feel that we are working for ourselves, and not for others! Good luck!

Concentration on Studies

Concentration follows eagerness. This section provides you with the basics of "Concentration" and also provides you with advice as to how to get aroused with concentration.

You need to pay attention in class. Don't start chatting with your peers/friends when the teacher turns their back to you. Even better; don't associate with distracting people. You should realize that the people in your class play an important role in how everybody progresses. However, if you are a good student you will do better and achieve your goals. Your friends will be there for you at that time, if they are trustful and of a good reputation. At home, study and do your homework in a place that doesn't make you sleep. It is advisable to have a dedicated study table or desk. Don't do your study work on the bed or in front of the t.v/radio/stereo etc. That would be pointless because you are meant to be thinking about your studies.

If you feel distracted, take a short break of 15 minutes or less, maybe try to read an unrelated story book. But don't start sticking to the book if the time limit is over. Book mark the page and then you can read it later on. You should also have a daily routine/timetable to guide you, but you must follow it through. Don't have regular fights at school; this will move your attention to fighting rather than listening to what your teacher says! Believe me, these are all important guidelines. Remember, study well now, and you can have fun after you achieve your goal - guaranteed!

Behavior

One of the main things that decide a person's or child's future is their behaviour. Learning textbooks and achieving 100% is not enough. People should think that you are the only all-rounder that has good manners. Obey your elders, don't bully your classmates at school. Remember, try imagining yourself in the other person's situation, and you'll know how much you hurt them with your actions. Say hello to your teachers and schoolmates when you see them, people will appreciate your friendliness and be friendly in return.

Above all, try helping your friends in any situation and you'll be remembered as one of the best friends at school! Don't just do it for a good reputation, but for a good future and for yourself. You should also know that words from your mouth are enough to break relationships (or worse) so don't utter foul, discouraging, or insulting words.

Don't take this as a lecture, but as a guideline! Behavior should be first and then comes academics. Even if you aren't good at school, you'll be famous for your behavior, and good friends are truly worth more than gold.

Management

This is one of the many questions that children ask their teachers, "Ma'am, I can't study!". Let's ponder on these things : Are you devoted to studying? Are you just studying for your parents? Are you just cheating in exams for getting good grades and marks? The list goes on.

First of all, as mentioned above, study somewhere that has a basic study table. Don't study or read in dim light. If you become bored on learning one subject, study something else that interests you a lot. You must always find alternatives as you go!

We all know the saying,” All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy". Yes, studying all night and not playing just stresses you on work and you'll forget everything the next morning. Play out for about 2 hours or so. It will be pleasant if you go out to play around in the evening, say 5 pm in the evening. This energizes you and gives you extra strength for everything you do.

Make a timetable. And that is all what this section is about. Arrange a time-table with the subjects that are tough for you in the first column. Then put a break column after every 2 subjects so you don't get strained. Of all, try getting a good sleep. Children are supposed to get 8 - 10 hours sleep. If you don't get enough sleep, that will result in sleepy studying and nothing will get inside your head.

Study on each subject for about 1 hour. You'll get refreshed. Also have a snack in between.

 

Helping Others And Advising 

Apart from improving yourself, try spreading your skills among others. This is the section that provides you with all the things necessary in sharing your skills. Co-operation is helping each other out so everyone benefits, it's the opposite of competing, where everyone wants to win for themselves. Most learning is done with the help of others, so learning to cooperate is a valuable skill for anyone. Study partners are a wonderful tool. They save time and they help reinforce what you have learned. Divide a reading assignment in half. Study your section using any and all note taking strategies you have(ie: Venn diagrams, outlines, note cards, colored highlighters etc) When you both have an understanding of your readings, take turns 'teaching/explaining' it to the other person. As you adjust your explanation to your partner, you will reinforce the concept for yourself. It works because as you think about how to explain the topic, you must understand it first!

 

Moral Education for Environmental Protection , Sarvodaya Model

Ecology is becoming a more and more important subject today because it scientifically studies the relation of nature and living organisms with each other as well as with their surroundings. Further, this subject investigates the unique interactions in our environment. Compared with the past it is becoming a subject much referred to due to the destruction of the natural resource base through deforestation, destroying fauna and flora, and disturbing the natural environment for various development activities. Air pollution has an adverse effect on the ozone layer. These factors need very serious attention today. If not solved they may lead us towards various unending questions. Will man senselessly destroy the ecosystems that support life on this planet? Will he be able to maintain a sustainable earth and eventually build a new humanity? The Sarvodaya model of ‘Moral education for environmental protection’ is based on traditional Asian cultural values and differs from isolated, unilineal, material-oriented development models. It is unique, since it is developed through people-centred activities and for people-centred activities. Thus this model is directly associated with both an individual morality and a social morality within the central value system of society. It is imperative that the development process in a community is compatible with its environment as well as with the particular culture of that community. Human beings define their natural environment in terms of its own endowments and natural resources, and in accordance with their perceptions and interrelationships. This pattern suggests that man is a cultural animal. This research covers activities in more than 5,000 villages (out of 25,000 villages in Sri Lanka) where the Sarvodaya model has been applied to achieve environmental protection through moral education. Sarvodaya is defined as the awakening or liberation of one and all, and it follows the Gandhian concept of human advancement. The pioneer of the Sarvodaya movement in Sri Lanka is Dr A.T. Ariyarathna. He says that the Sanskrit word ‘sarva’ means all-embracing, integrating everything pertaining to man, society and nature. ‘Vdaya’ means awakening, unfolding or well-being. Thus the literal meaning of ‘Sarvodaya’ is the awakening of one and all in the society in every respect. Mahatma Gandhi had coined the two words to signify the kind of society he desired for Independent India. The Sri Lankan Sarvodaya movement was inspired and strengthened by Gandhian thoughts as well as the teachings of Lord Buddha. In the Sarvodaya movement moral education is totally focused on individuals’ personality development to ultimate accomplish universal personality development. It is not merely an ideological model. It is certainly pragmatic in addition to being a practical model applicable through village-level educational programmes. Individual Morality, Social Morality and Culture In Sri Lanka society the majority (70 per cent) are Buddhists and their central value system comprises Buddhist values, norms, beliefs and morals. This value system and its chain of thought can be represented through appropriate codes of conduct. Foreign invasions and colonial occupation and accompanying influences had a negative impact and paved the way for the various conflicts, deviations and undesirable consequences that exist at present. Even in this disturbed and unsettled situation, Sarvodaya forges ahead, its moral education system expecting to achieve a society governed by Buddhist ethics. The Sarvodaya model of moral education for environmental protection is a process that has six distinct stages. They include spiritual, moral, cultural, social, economic and political aspects. 1. Purna paurushodaya (Personality awakening) 2. Kutumbodaya (Family awakening) 3. Gramodaya (Village community awakening) 4. Nagarodaya (Urban community awakening) 5. Deshodaya (National awakening) 6. Vishvodaya (Global awakening) The achievement of these six levels of awakening leads to universal awakening. To reach this state, moral education can contribute very effectively. To facilitate fulfilment of moral education goals there are ten basic human needs to be satisfied. Among those needs the environment should be considered one of most important. Matrix of the Ten Basic Human Needs

BASIC HUMAN NEED	ENVIRONMENT	WATER	CLOTHING	FOOD	HEALTH	HOUSING	COMMUNICATION	ENERGY	EDUCATION	CULTURE
HUMAN GROUP
Being
Family
Village
Small town
Group of Villages

 

These ten basic human needs are universal. They are essential and indispensable to maintain human life according to Lord Buddha. Therefore the Buddhist central value system provides teachings to protect the environment using indigenous knowledge. Maha Mangala Sutta states that ‘living in a suitable environment is a blessing’. Also according to the principles of Sarvodaya, complete human personality development is achievable within a suitable environment. The word ‘environment’ is used here to mean the physical, social, emotional and mental environment in which humans live. The physical environment includes the house, kitchen, latrine, well, sources of water (such as tanks, ponds, streams), garden, soil, land, vegetation, pathways leading to and from the house, neighbourhood, roads in the village, the main roads, air and all other things of physical character. Social and emotional environment refers to the surroundings, neighbours, intellectual and spiritual development, concentration as well as factors such as noise, which may influence or lead to mental disturbances. A clean and beautiful environment is one with unpolluted air, healthy soil and uncontaminated water suitable for human survival and devoid of unfavourable influences that make growing children go astray, and which provide them with physical and mental security while giving satisfaction and happiness in addition to a morally sound life-style. Buddhism and the Central Value System This doctrine is in perfect harmony with the Buddhist central value system. Prince Siddhartha (later Lord Buddha) was born under a sal tree in full bloom; he attained enlightenment under a Bo-tree and his parinibbana took place in a grove of sal trees in full bloom. This suggests that even the supreme events take place in a natural setting. Furthermore, Lord Buddha had once said: A tree is unique. It has unlimited tolerance, patience, and generosity. It provides a congenial atmosphere for many living organisms to survive. It also keeps on providing shade (as long as it stands) even to the man who attempts to destroy the tree with his axe. This statement signifies the paramount importance and value of trees, and the environment so necessary to sustain life including that of man. The trees and nature assume so great an importance that even the noblest had illustrated their value. Lord Buddha has stated that man possesses nama, rupa (form and mind), energy and a consciousness unified within a physical and social environment. Although one physical object of the external world stimulates his senses and generates mental activity and provides motivation to his behaviour, it does not necessarily determine his behaviour. A person has an element of freedom or sense of choice that can be exercised with understanding. Furthermore, from a careful study of Lord Buddha’s concept of ‘Sath Sathi’ (seven weeks) it is evident that he spent the fifth week after enlightenment under a tree with the snake Muchalinda. To visualise a tree, a snake and a human being at the same location is imagining a mutual or reciprocal relationship. The relationship between man, tree and animal is an interesting link between nature and culture. Therefore we can assume that in Sri Lankan society, environmental protection is a part of the central value system of the culture. Almost all Buddhists in Sri Lanka after religious observances in the morning and before going to bed recite an interesting poem. This poem amply illustrates a Buddhist’s value system in relation to his environment and its components. All living entities on this world and above it (meaning the earth and space above) such as humans, non-humans, who live far and near, ants, animals, trees, acquaintances, friends, teachers, kinsman and parents should receive these merits that I offer. This discloses the moral values related to Sri Lankan Buddhist culture and also the relationship between man and the environment. A Sarvodaya member pledges to maintain this close and friendly relationship with nature and also recognises the hierarchical social order to be observed. Moral Education Programme and Environment Protection Systems The Sarvodaya moral education programme has five steps: (i) Pre-school group (ii) Children’s group (iii) Youth group (iv) Mothers’ group (v) Farmers’ group PRE-SCHOOL GROUP These children may belong to different socio-economic strata but come together during the first stage of the socialisation process. The rural Sarvodaya centres try to care for these children and duly consider their nutritional state, health, education and mental well-being as well as sociability. The children have opportunities to recognise and perceive the relationship among them and between them and the environment and culture. This is achieved through structured fancy stories, legends, small dramas and other activities. They observe the streams, sky, soil, trees, sun, moon and the clouds. Their nutrition is met by a meal of porridge prepared by village mothers and the pre-school teacher using nutritious green leaves gathered from the neighbourhood. The children are assisted in personality development and in becoming environment conscious. The programme may differ from one region to another due to ecological variations. CHILDREN'S GROUP Members of these groups are schooling children receiving formal education. They initiate and engage in tree planting, maintaining small home gardens, soil conservation, prevention of water pollution, repair of small irrigation systems and group savings. They are encouraged to interact with other groups (youth, mothers’ and farmers’). Sometimes they join or organise shramadana activities. These enhance their environmental awareness. They are trained to acquire practical skills, the development of organizations, and to participate in community development programmes. Sarvodaya headquarters assist such efforts. They are encouraged to engage in self-help activities and group activities depending on the circumstances. YOUTH GROUP This group is relatively mature, knowledgeable and responsible. It may be more active in environment protection than previously mentioned groups. The majority of the group members have either completed their formal education (G.C.E. ordinary level), or they may integrate school subjects with Sarvodaya cultural value-related environmental protection programmes. Some of their activities may include collecting planting materials, tree planting, participatory environmental protection programmes, etc. Some of them may receive organic farming training at the Tanamalvila Centre. There they learn natural pest control methods, ecological farming techniques, sustainable farming technology, reforestation and watersheds management, etc. MOTHERS' GROUP At the village level the mothers’ groups are dynamic and the most powerful of all Sarvodaya groups. They are trained in child care, tree planting, moral and spiritual development, family nutrition, home economics, home crafts, sustainable farming practices, post-harvest technology of food commodities, natural resource management, etc. Such training helps them to integrate newly gained knowledge with traditional knowledge and pass on their experiences to their children. They also undertake religious programmes and attend ritual functions. Usually mothers’ groups actively engage in running the pre-school groups. The children’s socialisation and health problems are looked after. Mothers’ groups often maintain a garden to provide raw material to produce porridge for pre-school children. FARMERS' GROUP The elders of the village are in these groups. They organise all Sarvodaya activities in the village and are active members of the shramadana society. They enhance cooperation, unity, freedom and are interested in the prosperity and socio-cultural identity of the village. They assist youth groups and act to satisfy the basic needs of the community, including environmental conservation, water supply, food production, housing, health, communication, energy, education and the satisfaction of the spirituals needs of their members. Group Formation, Moral Education and Environment Protection These five groups meet separately as well as collectively according to the needs of their own villages. Their collective group formation can be introduced as a pawul hamuwa (family gathering). It includes all the five groups meeting at the village Sarvodaya centre daily and weekly depending on necessity. Among their activities, moral education and unity maintenance are considered main subjects. This process can be described as a secondary level socialisation. At the pawul hamuwa, after normal practices in the schedule, meditation is a major item. In the educational process at every meeting discussions involve talk of the central value system, plays and other items. Among these speeches one will be on environmental protection. It is used to emphasise the main responsibilities of the younger generation in our society. Among pawul hamuwa speeches the researcher has observed the following topics: Traditional medical treatment and environmental protection. Chakkawarthi Seehanada Sutta and environment. Traditional indicator plants in the environment. Traditional post-harvest methods. Natural pest control methods that ensure harmless control over the environment. In addition to delivering these speeches they perform traditional drama in modified forms. All these forms of education provide necessary moral discipline to the members. At the end of the pawul hamuwa sessions they give merit to the environment and leave the place. Practical Side of the Environmental Protection Mechanism in the Sarvodaya Model The Sarvodaya development model is totally compatible with the balanced development of society and the environment. On the one hand it is related to sustainable development and on the other it is associated with the development of the human mind or moral development. Particularly four positive Buddhist virtues of loving kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy (muditha), and equanimity (upekkha) are stressed. They analyse not only human resources but also non-human resources that can be influenced by the four positive virtues. The Sarvodaya model precisely and certainly emphasises balanced sustainable agriculture based on eco-friendly farming practices; further, it promotes practices conducive to sustainable natural resource management. The following case studies depict the nature and effectiveness of the Sarvodaya model in the Sri Lankan context. CASE STUDY 1 MORAL EDUCATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: THE PRE-SCHOOL GROUP (SINGITHI HAWULA, 0-6 YEARS) All Sarvodaya villages have a singithi hawula, which is a primary moral education group of children up to 6 years of age. The main purpose of this gathering is to enable children to acquire awareness about self-protection, self-confidence and self-reliance. Normally they are the pre-school children in the village. The pre-school teacher does the primary socialisation, providing understanding fancy tales, legends, jathaka stories and small dramas, and tries to introduce the relationship between nature and culture. Those are the first lessons about environmental protection and those devices are complementary to moral values from the central value system. At the same time the children try to internalise nature through observation. At the second stage the child himself has to bring a seed from home and plant it in the pre-school common home garden. He has to water the plants; he has to touch the soil with his fingers. Before the daily physical exercises the child goes to the common home garden and treats the small plants. This way he learns the interaction between humans and nature. Later on, small children prepare and plant a number of important vegetable plots collectively. At the third stage of environmental education the pre-school teacher and mother encourage children to think about trees and their importance to human beings. Everyday selected edible green leaves are collected from their home gardens used to prepare porridge. Sometimes they collect leafy vegetables from the surroundings to make porridge. After its preparation children are exposed to sharing behaviour. Each child serves a cup of porridge to another as a daily practice. It gives an equal opportunity to share as an activity that paves the way for collective consciousness. At the next step the pre-school children themselves organise malperehera (a flower parade) four times a month, particularly on poya days. The adult villagers have their own conflicts and problems with neighbours. But regardless of such things, every poya day one pre-school child carries a flower plate (malwattiya) to the neighbouring house. Then members of that family join the child with their own plate of flowers. This is repeated till each and every family gets together and walks, forming a perehare that moves towards the village temple. There they collectively make an offering. This sensitises villagers, establishes harmonious relationships among children, and leads to the development of a collective conscience among them. It paves the way for unity and solidarity. Trivial mistakes are forgotten and forgiven and harmonious relations among the participants are renewed. The next stage of the moral education process for the village pre-school group is organising a singithi pola (babies’ fair) at the village Sarvodaya centre. The children collect vegetables, fruits, nuts and other materials and take them to this small fair; mothers come to the fair to buy things from their own kids. This gives them training to earn and save money. In some villages pre-school children engage in rice collection, sugar collection, etc. These practices provide experience in collectivity, united earning and saving as a moral obligation. At the end of the pre-school stage children participate in organising visits or trips, or educational contests about environmental protection or shramadana activities. The final outcome is that a small child learns about his role within the environmental system, and personality development is supported within this primary moral educational model. In addition, the pre-school teacher and the mothers of the village have to look after the nutrition, health, education and mental well-being and sociability of children. At the end of the pre-school stage they form a singithi hawula to assist other small formal organisations of Sarvodaya. CASE STUDY 2 ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE GRAVITY-BASED VILLAGE WATER SUPPLY SCHEME ORGANISED BY THE ELDERS' GROUP This case study aims to explain the secondary level socialisation process and how the implementation of a moral education programme through practical experience is attempted. The location of this included 10 communities, 36 schemes and their gravity-based water supply schemes in Kandy, Badulla, Matara and Nuwaraeliya districts. These programmes were completed in 1985 and evaluation was done in 1987. This second evaluation was done in 1995. The main objectives of the case study were To identify whether the communities had achieved environmentally sustainable gravity-based village water supply schemes. To examine how this construction had changed values and fulfilment of the water needs of the area. To see whether they had achieved the moral values in the Sarvodaya value systemin practice through different hawulas such as youth hawula, mothers’ hawula, and farmers’ and elders’ hawulas. In the Sarvodaya model of moral education, activities are practically demonstrated to prove their value to youths, mothers and elders, so that they can all perform them in their everyday lives. For the water supply project, Sarvodaya provided technical cooperation from its Rural Technical Services (RTS) unit. In addition it provided the necessary materials which had to be purchased. In line with the Sarvodaya philosophy of normal education the following decisions were made. In the hilly areas water projects should be gravity-based ones and people should not pollute or destroy the environment. There is no use of chemicals or toxic substances. At the initial stage different groups in the village got together and collectively decided on the necessity of a water scheme, then they carefully searched for a water spring within the village. After getting consent they cleaned around the spring and dug properly to conduct further investigations, such as the quantity of water available. After gaining collective approval the selected place was taken over by the Sarvodaya village centre and converted legally into common property. Environment Protection and Naturalisation of the Process After these initial steps the Sarvodaya technical team visited and measured the water level, power of gravity, annual fluctuations in water availability and the capacity of the water spring. Following this the village shramadana society got together and started infrastructural work to develop the water spring without excessively disturbing the location. Further, they collected gravel, stones, sand and other necessary materials on a shramadana basis and constructed a protective tank, while taking remedial environmental measures. After having started the process the pawul hamuwa often got together at night to discuss developments or review the progress of the gravity-based water scheme. The management group of the Sarvodaya pawul hamuwa had given necessary guidelines in relation to resource management and environmental protection. After their common decision the shramadana society permitted the spring area protective scheme. First the land area was protected by a wire fence. Then trees were established around the catchment area and associated with the water spring. Attempts have been taken to protect the spring from soil degradation and contamination by human and non-human elements. After development of the water spring, the Sarvodaya society constructed a stock tank at the highest suitable location below the spring. The water collected by the tank was to be purified. The process of purification was completely managed by local experts. They used stones, gravel, sand and other suitable materials to filter the spring water. The collected water in the stock tank was distributed by gravity-based pump lines. This was done to avoid disturbing the natural soil. Natural purification methods were used. The researchers studied 36 gravity-based water projects providing water for thousands of people all over the hilly regions. In all of them the whole concept was found to be compatible with conservation of the natural environment, and the sustainability of the projects was high. The operations of the water project were done voluntarily by the villagers. Their collective consciences and internal peace and love had helped to smoothly conduct the activities. Basic values related to moral education had been internalised. The social and individual morality developed with team spirit from childhood enabled the individuals to establish and maintain harmonious relationships in later life. The Sarvodaya model of moral education was both socially effective and environmentally valuable. Conclusion Environmental protection concerns within the Sarvodaya moral education model are dealt with by appropriate organisation of the community followed by appropriate orientation, awareness sessions and training. The Sarvodaya model focuses on the integration of cultural values with environmental concerns through a harmonious, synchronised and friendly approach. The aim is to implement the most appropriate programmes to achieve well-defined objectives. The progress made so far suggests that this model enables the achievement of sustainable and adequate development in village settings.

Hinduism : An Overview

Introduction

If looked at in the historical perspective, all the religions have an interesting beginning and development.  Also looking at all the religions in the historical context makes it easier to understand and tolerate.  Sri Aurobindo wrote that all religions have two aspects.  One is the Truth or the core essence of the religion.  The second is the unimportant part that is only relevant to the time the scriptures were written.  Thus the Gita is a sermon on the battlefield.  The battlefield is not important.  Similarly the Koran was revealed over many years during tumultuous years with tribal infighting in Mecca and Medina.  That context of the Koran, with its violence and death is not important and significant only for the contemporary period.  Similarly one religion does not hold an answer to all the questions.  One religion does not hold a monopoly on Truth.  In the end one will only extract what one is capable of from any scripture.  If we get bogged down in the social constraints or customs of the time when the scriptures were written, they are bound to appear ordinary today.

Hinduism is a belief and not a scripted practice.  Belief in the basic tenets of Hindu Dharma is all that is needed.  The rest is up to the individual.  Despite the noisy celebration with loud conches and raucous bells, the essence of practice of Hinduism is a quiet introspection and contemplative meditation.  A Hindu’s quest is to purify his ‘self’ called jiva-atman.  It is possible for every Hindu to do this by following the path of Dharma.  No Hindu can be denied this right.

Action is inevitable in life.  There are distinctively two kinds of actions–good and bad.    A Hindu is encouraged to show moral judgment in all his actions.  This is especially so because of the karma doctrine.   There is accountability for all actions.  The goal is to accumulate good karma through many births.  Because Hindus believe atman is indestructible, it is believed that the same atman is transferred from one birth to another.  But the karma is never forgotten and carried by the jiva-atman like a shroud around a naked soul, form birth to birth.

This is a strong incentive for Hindus to lead a life of virtue.  Life is a learning process, an opportunity to gather knowledge.  Like a student in school, some students taking longer to comprehend and finish school than others, but always finishing school, Hinduism gives everyone ample time to succeed in releasing oneself from the cycles of rebirth.  It gives them many lifetimes to do so.  Everyone goes about doing this at his or her own speed.  The scriptures give us suggestions as to how this process can be hastened but does not compel us to do it one way or another.

Some Definitions

Dharma translates to righteousness and is a code of conduct that is expected of everyone though in Hinduism it is without compulsion. Laws of Manu (Manuva Shastra or Manusmriti) form the basis of Hindu conduct.

Karma is a retributive justice that is carried with the atman into the afterlife   It is the imprint of one’s deeds in this life.  A human being is born already with a heavy baggage that is the memory of the karma from previous births.  In the current life he is in full control of his deeds and hence is capable of accumulating good karma throughout this life. This is like a balance sheet.  Good karma cancels out the bad karma.  When enough good karma is accumulated over many lifetimes, the jiva-atman is released from this eternal cycle of samsara and attains moksha.

Samsara is the repeated cycles of births and deaths.  A human is destined to be born many times until his soul is purified.  He is given a chance to accumulate good karma so that the endless cycle of rebirths can be broken.  It is believed that as more and more good karma is accumulated it can be seen in one’s life as he becomes more and more illuminated and austere.  Thus we say that the learned guru, for example has an aura around him.  The avatars or the prophets perhaps are the ultimate examples of humans who have accumulated enough good karma to be on the verge of release from the repetitive cycle of samsara.  This in Hinduism is called Moksha or Realization of Truth.

Punarjanma and Punarmrutyu are repeated births and deaths.  The aim of a Hindu is to seek release from this endless cycle.

Moksha is attained when the jiva-atman is released from the cycle of samsara.  This is not different from the terms Nirvana of Buddhism or Mukti of Jainism.  It is also referred to as Realization of Truth, and identifying with the Eternal Self or Brahman.

Brahman is the Universal Self or World Soul or Parama-atman.  IT is the Supreme God of the Upanishads, who is characterless, shapeless, without limitations and without any attributes (nirguna, nirakara, nirupadhika and nirvishesha).  In the Upanishads Brahman is described as an amorphous, omnipresent, omnipotent all-pervading power.  However, for practical purposes and for the sake of worship,nirguna Brahman was given shape and characteristics.  This is the SagunaBrahman.

Jiva-atman is the self (soul) within every human.  It is the ego and is molded after Brahman.  Different Vedanta philosophies differ as to how closely aligned jiva-atmanis with parama-atman.

Antaratman is a deeper soul that is hidden deep within.  However, layers of ignorance cover antaratman.  The purpose of Hindu is to uncover the shades and let antaratman shine in all its glory.  Only by gathering knowledge the covering around antaratman can be removed.

Goodness is present in every human soul.  This is the basis of treating other humans with respect.  Divinity rests in every soul of every human.  The practice of greeting another human being with the palms brought together in front of the heart signifies the fact that we recognize the divinity in their souls.  It is the sign prayer to God.

Scriptures of Hinduism

To understand a religion and its philosophy it is important to know the scriptures that gave it form and strength.  Scriptures of Hinduism come from the Sanatana Dharma and mostly were written more than two thousand years ago.  The more modern literature (written in the medieval period) is mainly commentaries on the ancient literature.

Written in Sanskrit language, the Hindu literature is considered to be authoritative by the Hindus.  They can broadly be classified as six orthodox and four secular categories.

 

The orthodox section contains:

 

Shruti – That which is heard. This is the direct edict of the gods as heard by the Vedic seers. The Vedas fall under this category.   Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva.  Each Veda is again divided into four parts.  Samhitas are the hymns praising God.  Brahmanas are details of Vedic rituals and rites.  Aranyakas or forest books are a prelude to Upanishads, a guidebook for the forest dweller (during the Vanaprastha ashrama).  Upanishads are the philosophical aspect of the Vedas.  There are more than one hundred Upanishads attached to different Vedas, but about 13 of them are important because later teachers have commented them upon.

 

Smriti – That which is remembered. These are the law texts, moral stories and the epics written and remembered. These include Sutras and Shastras (e.g. Brahma Sutra and Dharma Shastra). Vedangas (Limbs of Vedas) and Upa-Vedas are also included here.   Jyotisha falls under Vedanga whereas Sthapathya veda (vastu shilpa) and Ayurveda are classified under Upa-vedas.

 

Puranas/Upapuranas – There are eighteen Puranas of Vyasa and fourteen upa-Puranas.  There are mainly three groups of Puranas, i.e. Brahma, Vaishnava and Shaiva Puranas.

 

Ithihasas – Mahabharata and Ramayana.

 

Agamas – Texts of rituals and rites of worship.  They include Mantra, Tantra and Yantra.  Agama texts also fall under three sections; Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta. These are treatises that explain the physical worship of God in a temple setting.

 

Darshanas – The six philosophical doctrines of salvation:  Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.  Vedanta means culmination of Vedas.  It is the study of three philosophical texts namely Brahma Sutra, Bhagavad-Gita and the Upanishads, collectively called Prasthana Traya.

 

The secular section has four categories:

 

Subhashitas  – Wise sayings: Pachatantra and Hitopadesha belong to this category.

 

Kavyas – Scholarly poetry and prose: Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha andKumarasambhava are examples of poetry and Banabhatta’s works are the greatest examples of prose literature.

 

Natakas – Scholarly dramas: Examples are Kalidasa’s Shakunthala and Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa. 

 

Alankara – Composition of elegance and ornamental language includes such works as Mammata’s Kavyaprakasha and Jagannatha’s Rasagangadhara. 
 

The heterodox literatures are those that did not view Vedas as authoritative. These are Buddhist, Jaina and Charvaka systems.

 

Who is a Hindu? 

 

In simple terms, “He who accepts the Scriptures (Shruti and Smriti) as the basis of his religion, and follows its rule of conduct (or Dharma), and he who believes in one Supreme God (Brahman), in the Law of retributive justice (or Karma), and in reincarnation (punarjanma), is a Hindu.”

 

History of Hinduism

 

Sanatana Dharma was brought to Northwest India first around 1500 B.C.  From its inception reform of the Dharma took place continuously.  There was a mixture of cultures in the Indus Valley civilization, which existed for at least a thousand years before the arrival of Aryans.  The Aryans brought with them the oral tradition of Vedas.  Rig Veda was introduced first. Until 600 B.C. the various Vedas were accumulated.  The form of worship was mainly sacrificial.  Nature Gods like Indra, Varuna, Surya were recognized.  Man considers himself capable of joining the ranks of gods by performing sacrificial rituals.  It was the age of the assimilation of great Vedas and it ended with the revelation of Aranyakas and Upanishads.  This is referred to as the Vedic Period.  Brahman of the Upanishads replaced Prajapati, the Creator God of Rig Veda.

 

Following this period the rigidity of caste systems developed.  Power and corruption led to dissenting thought process by the likes of Buddha and Mahavira.  This was the period when skepticism, materialism (Charvaka), Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed.  There were several other philosophers, who put forth their own unique philosophies, during the next 800 or so years.  This was the most fertile period in the history of India.  Called the Epic Period, when epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana were written, other significant works like Dharmashastra-the moral, social and ethical doctrine that forms the foundation of Hinduism even today, were also written.  This was also the golden period of other religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

 

The third period in the history is called the Sutra Period.  Short aphorisms called sutras were written during this period, in the early centuries of the Christian era.  Most significant of them were the Brahma Sutra of Badarayana, which were commentaries on the Vedas and Upanishads.  The six philosophical systems called Darshanas were also written during this period.

 

The fourth period is called Scholastic Period.  Commentaries were written on the Sutras.  Based on the Vedas and the Sutras, new systems and thought process developed.  Shankara’s Advaita, Ramanuja’s Vishistadvaita and Madhva’s Dvaita philosophies took permanent place in Hinduism.  However, after the sixteenth century, because of occupation by foreign rulers, Hinduism went into decay and no significant thought process occurred until late in 19^th century when Sri Aurobindo and Vivekananda helped in the renaissance of the religion.

 

Now let us see what happened to the sacrificial Sanatana Dharma first introduced by the Aryans.  The Nirguna Brahman of the philosophical Upanishad was now given character and form.  Saguna Brahman was given many shapes and attributes.  The Trinity of Gods – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva – gained prominence.  Orthodox Hinduism developed.  A great impetus to revive Hinduism in the face of challenge from Buddhism occurred during Gupta dynasty around 300 A.D.  Vikramaditya’s glorious rule saw a great increase in art and cultrure.  Secular literature like Kalidasa’s work and other natakas and subhashitas were written.

 

Buddhism slowly took a backbench but Hinduism was in danger into splintering into various factions like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktaism.  Then around 800 A.D. came a saint Shankaracharya who brought together these various factions under the big umbrella of Hinduism.  He reformed the form of worship and forwarded his Advaita philosophy.  Advaita drew its strength from Sankya philosophy and resembled Buddhism somewhat.  Later came Ramanuja and Madhva with different ideas, but not completely dissociating from the core philosophy laid down in the Upanishads.

 

Philosophy of Hinduism

 

Only by studying the philosophy as written in the Upanishads this question can be answered.  To explain them in more detail, there are seven fundamental characteristics of Indian philosophy. 

First and foremost the philosophy concentrates on spirituality.  

 

The second aspect of Indian philosophy is that it is socio-spiritual.  It is not merely an exercise to seek knowledge for the sake of knowledge.  This is to be lived and experienced.  The philosophy is to be used to change one’s life and seek the Truth.   This experience is to be seen as in Darshan and not merely known. 

 

The third aspect is knowing oneself by introspection, is more important than knowing the physical world.  Though science, astrology progressed at breakneck speed in India, it is the atma-vidya that is believed to lead a Hindu to realize the Truth.  This in turn is a highly personal endeavor. 

 

The fourth fact is that the philosophy is monistic.  Despite the appearance of conflicting images of various gods and forms of worship, basic thought is that there is only one ultimate reality.

 

Fifth and perhaps one of the most important characteristics of the philosophy isintuition. Reasoning may be important to demonstrate the Truth but will not always discover it. It is a process of knowing or sensing without rationalization.

 

Sixth important fact is the acceptance of authority.  Here comes the guru concept.  The Vedic seers are accepted as the ones who had known the ultimate Truth and realized it.  Buddha and Mahavira are also accepted as ones who had intuitive experience and thus realized the Truth.

 

The seventh characteristic is the ability to synthesize the different aspects of philosophical thought process.  It is the thought that God is one but man calls Him by many names that helped to bring all the disparate philosophies under one tent.

 

Purpose and practice

 

The only purpose of man’s life on earth is to identify himself with the eternal Self-called Brahman and unite with it through knowledge (jnana), service (karma) and/or devotion (bhakti).

 

The well-educated upper echelon of the society can take the path of jnana yoga to realize the Truth by studying scriptures. 

 

However, Upanishads give us other means of doing this if one is not familiar with the scriptures or is unable to comprehend them.  For ordinary folks it is possible to seek the Truth by intense devotion to a personal God.  This is called bhakti yoga.  Any object or manifestation can be chosen to show one’s devotion.  This has led to hundreds of perceived manifestations of Brahman, as envisaged by the devotees.  But the underlying theme is that all these are manifestations of a single God.  It is basically monistic.  On the surface it may appear to be polytheistic with many gods and objects worshipped in various forms.  But they are all manifestations of Brahman, the one and only Supreme Being.  At one time, the religion was close to becoming polytheistic with belief in many gods, but Sharkaracharya reformed this. 

 

For still others there is the karma Yoga, exalted in the Bhagavad-Gita.  Service of humanity without the expectation of fruits or rewards is another method of gaining knowledge.  If every human has an antaratman that resembles Brahman, then service of human is akin to service of God.  This is the premise of Karma Yoga.

 

Customs and Classes

Most of the codes of conduct are laid down in Manu Smriti texts.  The four castes developed as a result of people’s profession rather than by birth.  Upanishads repeatedly give examples of this but however in practicality the society was divided into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vashya and Shudra classes.  The higher classes controlled the lower classes but this became more pronounced after the Muslim take over of India.  The earlier Muslim rulers craftily divided the Hindu society by taxing only certain classes and giving certain privileges to Brahmins.  This resulted in resentment among the other classes.

 

Though samsara is a burden on the jiva-atman, that constantly seeks release from it, life is not to be wasted in inactivity.  There are responsibilities one must meet, including an assurance of continuation of one’s progeny.  A Hindu’s lifetime is divided into four stations (ashramas).  Earlier Brahmachari, a student living with his guru, subsisting on hand outs from neighbors and studying the Vedas. 

 

Next he enters grahasthashrama, when he marries and raises his family.  During this period he is urged to earn an honest living and follow righteousness.  Dharma, artha and kama are to be practiced.  Kama is an essential part of grahastha, not merely to continue one’s progeny.  Active participation in sex and mutual gratification is stressed.

 

When the children are well settled and the grandchildren are old enough to enter Brahmachari ashrama, it is time to enter Vanaprastha ashrama.  Man renounces worldly pleasures and resides in the forest with or without his wife.  He begins to undertake the study of the scriptures.

 

The final stage is Sanyasa ashrama, when the man renounces everything including his family and wanders around immersing himself in the study of scriptures.

 

The samhitas are for the Brahmachari.  The Brahmanas are for the Grahastha to follow Vedic rituals.  Aranyakas help in introducing the Vanaprastha ashrami to start dwelling into the philososphy of the Vedas.  Upanishads are for the Sanyasi to study in depth the scriptures.

 

Starting from before his birth a Hindu goes through many stages when different samskaras or rituals to purify the soul.  Of the more than forty such samskaras, sixteen called (Shodasha samskara) are still popular today.  It starts at the time of conception with the samskara of Garabadana.  Others include Seemantonayana, Jatakarma, Namakarana, Annaprashana, Upanayana, and Vivaha to name a few.  It ends in the end of life in the Antyeshti samskara. 

 

During his lifetime a Hindu is encouraged to practice eight moral rules to enhance his atma-vidya.  These include compassion, forgiveness, cleanliness, absence of jealousy, altruism, absence of greed, auspiciousness and absence of mental strain.  These eight characteristics called ashtaguna will help build character in a Hindu and propel him towards his goal of achieving moksha.

 

Conclusion

Hinduism is the longest surviving religion in the world.  That is not to say that it has not changed over the millennia.  Sanatana Dharma has changed significantly from the Vedic period to now.  In fact it has continually changed over many centuries and has been modified as new challenges appeared.  Starting with Buddha and Mahavira, the establishment of rigid caste system was questioned.  For about three to five hundred years even the Upanishads were questioned.  Charavaka system of complete materialism with atheism went a step further than Buddha’s atheistic but spiritual teachings. 

 

Around 600 B.C. after about one thousand years after its uninterrupted practice, Buddha, Mahavira and Goshala challenged the hierarchy.  Over the next 800 years Buddhism made steady progress, aided by the great Maurya king Ashoka and ensuing kingdoms.  Kanishka helped export Buddhism to China and Japan. 

 

The Darshana literature with Nyaya, Yoga and Sankhya and Vedanta were popular.   Royal patronage came again later when Guptas two to three hundred years after Christ, uplifted the religion.  Hinduism itself slowly transformed from the sacrificial ritual to bhakti ritual. 

 

A glorious period of religion and art followed.  Starting about the 7^th century A. D. permanent temples were built in stone to house Hindu gods.  By now the gods had changed from the nature gods to the three Trinity of Gods, namely Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.  Nirguna Brahman of the Upanishads was only mentioned in the philosophical discussions.  For practical matters, Saguna Brahman was visible everywhere.  

 

While Guptas effectively revived Hinduism it was another Saint half a millennium later that permanently brought all the factions of Hinduism under one umbrella.  There was a danger of schism, as the followers of Vishnu and Shiva and other gods failed to see that their philosophy originated from the same source called the Vedas.  Shankaracharya in the 8^th century helped in the synthesis and refined the ritualistic Hinduism.  He also advanced strict monism (advaita) based on the Sankhya philosophy as well as the Upanishads.  He saw a dual nature in the phenomenal world.  Maya or illusion was how he explained the daily chores and happenings on earth.  But he was pointing to another higher level where human intellect needed to go to attain moksha.

 

Later Vedantis disputed this and put forward their own theories, again based on the interpretations of the Upanishads and Brahma sutra.  Notably, Madhvacharya advocated dvaita philosophy, saying that the jiva-atman and parama- atman are two separate entities and can never be joined.  Moreover, the phenomenal world is real and not maya, (as Shankara had proposed) and Vishnu is the Supreme God.

 

It is truly a wonder how Hinduism that appears to be a combination of many religions tied together, has stayed as one religion.  From the Vedic sacrificial religion to the current day bhakti cult, they appear to be at two ends of the scale.  However, the sanctity of Vedas and a willingness to be reformed as well as an extraordinary tolerance of other religions has made Hinduism remarkable.  No wonder it is called Sanatana Dharma, a religion without a beginning or ending.

 

Where doe the future take us? 

 

One cannot forget what was taught so well in the Bhagavad-Gita.  It teaches us that paths to Truth are many.  Thus it does not discount other philosophies that may show a different path.  It is better to follow the faith one is born to than to change or convert to another.  Thus the tolerance of Hindus for other religions is unique.  It is the only religion that is inclusive, respectful of other religious thoughts and philosophy.   Hinduism is the only religion that can be adopted universally.

 

Hinduism demonstrated its willingness to accept others early when it adopted Buddha as one of Vishnu’s avatars.  It is conceivable that if Vishnu is to have more than ten avatars, both Jesus and Muhammad could be accepted willingly as avatars.  After all, Buddha who did not believe in the sanctity of the Vedas was included as one of the avatars, replacing Balram (in order to keep the total at ten).  Hinduism has shown remarkable resiliency and adaptability.  Is it possible to add newer prophets to the list of avatars?